Wine Fundamentals 1 Class 5

Cellaring and Storage
• many of what are generally considered to be the world’s “great” wines arrive in the
hands of consumers with a qualification: they will reach their peak of quality after a
certain number of years of cellaring
• given the high cost of some of these products, it is important to understand that when
producers or retailers advocate that a wine be cellared, they have in mind a set of
environmental conditions which must be observed for the wine to reach its peak
• the French word for the period of time a wine spends at the winery, often in barrel,
where it is tended before bottling is “elevage”, which means “raising” and is the same
word applied to the raising of a child—l’elevage de l’enfant
• when a wine which will be better after cellaring reaches a consumer, it must be
similarly “raised”, and just like a child, will respond either positively or negatively to the
conditions in which it is raised
• mercifully, raising a wine is far less complicated than raising a child and there are no
competing theories as to how best to do it, no theories on the virtues of time-outs, or the
evils of spanking, hours of television, or scheduling play-time
• instead, there is agreement on what factors make for ideal cellaring conditions and
home consumers and restaurants are advised to observe these conditions in order to
protect their investment and to ensure that the wine will be healthy when it has reached
its peak age
• if ideal cellaring conditions are not observed, the fault rests with the buyer, not the
producer
Ideal Cellaring Conditions
Temperature
• ideal temperature for wine storage is in the range of 50-55 F or 10-12 C
• most wines of quality can mature well at a broader range as well—45-64 F or 7-18 C,
but it should be emphasized that a wine’s rate of maturation is affected by temperature:
at warmer temperatures, the rate is increased
• the greater issue with respect to temperature is constancy
• both corks and wine expand and contract in response to temperature fluctuations and if
fluctuations occur—especially if the temperature change occurs quickly—there is a
danger that the cork’s seal will be lost and wine will leak up the cork and suffer oxidation
• prolonged exposure to high temperatures can cause the wine to develop cooked or
stewed flavours—a wine fault known as “madeirization”
• “madeirized” wines are so named after “Madeira” the fortified wine from the island of
Madeira which is purposely heated to develop its characteristic aroma
Darkness
• wine is a photo-sensitive liquid, and is ideally stored in the dark
• light causes pigments to change—your forest green pine tree air freshener hanging
from your rear view mirror will fade after a few weeks in the sun
• the effects of light on wine are most obvious in white wines where prolonged exposure
can cause pigments to oxidize prematurely and turn brown
Humidity
• high relative humidity in a cellar is important for maintaining the integrity of the cork
• if humidity is too low, the cork can dry out and contract causing oxidation of the wine
and leakage
• this is also why wine is best stored either on its side or at a slight angle: maintaining
contact with the wine keeps the cork moist
• excess humidity can also be a problem and cause labels and corks to rot—we know that
rot in the vineyard is encouraged in humid conditions and the same is true in the cellar
• ideal relative humidity is between 75 and 80 % and should not fluctuate
Freedom from Vibration
• modern wineries have invested heavily in equipment and winery designs which allow
them to handle the fruit and the finished wine in the gentlest possible ways
• one of the most popular modern winery designs is what is known as the gravity-fed or
gravity flow winery where the successive stages of the wine making process occur at
successively lower levels—reception of fruit at the top, crushing at the next, fermentation
at the next, pressing at the next, and so on
• the philosophy which guides the modern winery has its parallel in the wine cellar: wine
matures best when it is left alone, not constantly moved around or shaken up
• vibration and movement affect the chemical and physical changes which occur as a
wine matures and should be avoided as much as possible
• wines should be stored either with labels upright or with some sort of bin number
system so that the location of the wine is known without the necessity for pulling out
bottles to find the correct wine
Cleanliness
• wine can be sensitive to odours in the cellar and, ideally, the cellar should be kept free
of odours and should be well-ventilated and dedicated—only wine and spirits should be
stored together
Why Bother?
• with so many conditions attached to proper wine storage, it is not unreasonable to ask,
“Why bother?”
• the vast majority of wines are consumed within hours of purchase and most are made to
be treated in just that way: all wines age, but only a small number of wines mature into a
liquid which is noticeably different and arguably more pleasurable (or “better”) than they
were in youth
• the simple answer to “Why bother?” for the home consumer is that you enjoy the
structural and flavour-related uniqueness of mature wine: it provides a level of pleasure
which is worth jumping through a few hoops to experience
• if, after tasting mature wines which have been properly cellared, you find that you do
not appreciate their unique qualities, then there really is no reason to bother
• in the absence of love, there are a few other potential motives for cellaring wine
• there are some home consumers who purchase wines strictly as an investment with the
intention of realizing a reasonable rate of return when the wines are re-sold, and for these
people, proper cellaring is essential
• in general, however, wine is not a particularly sound financial investment, particularly
in Ontario where re-selling the wine is more difficult than in some other jurisdictions
• there are other consumers who, while not themselves appreciative of mature wine,
entertain regularly and like to provide their guests with the option of mature wine; for
these people, proper cellaring is crucial
• the issue is marginally more complicated when it arrives in the restaurant setting
• successful restaurants with thoughtful and serious wine programs will generally try to
offer guests the option of mature wine
• restaurants must balance a few issues, however, when deciding how best to provide
their guests with such options
• the first, and most important issue is financial
• providing proper storage can be expensive; cellaring wine ties up capital and there is no
guarantee that a reasonable return on that capital will be realized
• the other issue facing the restaurateur is the basic difference between cellar and service
temperatures
• in the ideal circumstances, restaurants will be able to provide two levels of storage:
proper conditions for long-term cellaring; and a second storage area which will house
wines to be sold in the near-term and held at temperatures close to the ideal for service
What Happens to Wine as it Matures?
• lovers of fine old wines may not care what exactly happens inside a bottle of
wine—they care what it tastes like like when the cork is removed and it splashes into a
clean glass
• but it pays to have a basic understanding of what happens
• in brief, there are two basic processes at work—the first is oxidation and the
second reduction
• together, they render a wine softer, less tannic, and with a different aromatic profile (a
bouquet) and different colour than is displayed in young wines
• we have already examined colour change—part of which is caused by the oxidation of
the pigments in the wine
• there is a small amount of oxygen present in a bottle of wine, but this is quite quickly
used up and a different process begins—what is typically called reductive ageing which
takes place in the absence of the exchange with oxygen
• Reds: young reds are dominated by lilac, purple, mauve and, occasionally blue-black
hues
• as wine ages, pigment molecules, which are small, begin to join with other molecules
(including the larger tannin molecules) to form larger molecules or polymers
• not surprisingly, this process is known as polymerization
• when polymers become too large to remain suspended in solution, they drop out as
sediment
• as the purple pigments diminish, they lose their dominance over the colour of the
wine and remaining tannins now begin to show their colours—yellowish, orange,
brown—and they also polymerize and drop out of solution
• nevertheless, as the colours of the tannins begin to take over, the wine emerges as
increasingly brown
• remember though that this is an assessment of maturity, not age; different wines mature
at different rates; nor is it an assessment of quality; few wines improve with age
• Whites: the changes in colour of white wines are less well understood, but current
thinking suggests that whites are white due to a combination of yellow flavones and
green chlorophyll
• colour changes may be the result of the joining of these and browning caused by
oxidation
Merlot
• enormously successful international variety and competes with Cabernet Sauvignon for
supremacy
In the Vineyard
Features
• large, deeply coloured berries with relatively thin skins in loose bunches
• relatively low in tannin and capable of high sugar levels (and hence high alcohol)
• early budding, flowering and ripening
Susceptibility
• frost is a problem, given early budding and the variety has shown itself not be survive
particularly cold winters (Washington State lost many Merlot vines in the cold winter of
1997-98)
• coulure, downy mildew
• thin skin makes gray rot a problem
Soils and Climate
• does well in cold/cool soils with good water retention such as clay, but also does well in
dry, well-drained soils
• relatively cool climate is ideal with warm days and cool nights
• in hotter climates, can suffer alarming loss of acidity
In the Winery
Vinification and Ageing
• standard red wine vinification, with great affinity for maturation in oak barrels where
the vanilla of the wood marries well with the plum and cocoa flavours of the grape
• quite wide stylistic variation for soft and quaffable to firm and ageable—even
occasionally made as a rose or “white Merlot” by enterprising vintners looking to
capitalize on its easy-to-pronounce name
• of enormous importance as a blending partner with Cabernet Sauvignon and/or
Cabernet Franc in Bordeaux and elsewhere
• can suffer from a lack of acidity
• in this familiar blend, Merlot provides alcohol, richness of fruit and greater forwardness
to the tannic/acidic structure of Cabernet Sauvignon
• on its own, Merlot is generally suitable for mid-term ageing of 4+ years, but finest
examples have 20+ year potential
• when blended with generally more ageable variety like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot will
improve over a longer period
Common Aromatic Descriptors
• Fruit: plum, prune, black cherry, fig
• Other: fruitcake, chocolate
• can be herbaceous if underripe
• Palate: it is, perhaps, the texture or mouthfeel which is most important for the
popularity of Merlot—its richness, suppleness, and softness
Noted Regions
Spiritual Home
• the right bank of Bordeaux in the area sometimes referred to as the Libournais
• specifically, the communes of St.-Emilion and Pomerol where its traditional blending
partner is Cabernet Franc
Other Regions
• the rest of Bordeaux where it is forms an important component in the standard
Bordeaux blend
• Tuscany, the Napa Valley, and Washington State all produce Merlot or Merlot-based
wines of great quality
• Ticino in Switzerland, British Columbia in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, South
Africa, Chile
• just about everywhere else on earth: the vine is fashionable and capable of providing
good financial returns to growers
Cabernet Franc
In the Vineyard
Features
• large berries in fairly loose bunches
• buds and ripens early, making it suitable for cooler climates
• a relative of Cabernet Sauvignon—part of a family of vines typically known as the
Carmenet varieties
Susceptibility
• quite hardy and disease and cold resistant, but has problems with downy and powdery
mildew
• prone to mutation, but not at all as susceptible to this as Pinot Noir
Soils and Climate
• does well in cool climates and cooler clay soils with good water retention
• generally adaptable to different soils—also does well in the dry, well-drained soils of
the Medoc
In the Winery
Vinification and Ageing
• standard red wine vinification, but a little less amenable to the rich flavours associated
with maturation in new oak barrels
• occasionally fermented at cooler temperatures and aged in inert vessels to highlight fruit
flavours
• occasionally and successfully vinified as a rose, especially in France’s Loire Valley
• Ontario producers have made very successful ice wine from Cab Franc
• not often seen as a vin de garde (a wine to put away for ageing) but can mature nicely
over the mid-term (4-6 years)
• longer ageing for blended wines
• occasionally seen as a varietal wine, but very often blended with Merlot and/or
Cabernet Sauvignon where Cab Franc provides intriguing and lifted aromas
Common Aromatic Descriptors
• Fruit: raspberry, strawberry
• Earthy: pencil shavings, graphite, wet stones, smoke, ashtray (in Ontario)
• Floral/Vegetal: Green pepper, violets, occasionally herbaceous, leafy aromas
• Palate: similar to Cab Sauv but less tannic and leaner of flavour
Noted Regions
Spiritual Home
• the central west coast of France in the Bordeaux region and the Loire Valley
• in Bordeaux, it is most important as a blending partner with Cabernet Sauvignon and/or
Merlot
• in the Loire Valley, it is the variety used in appellations of Chinon, Bourgeuil, and St.-
Nicolas de Bourgeuil
Other Regions
• Ontario, where it is important as a varietal wine as well as a blending partner
• everywhere that Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are grown
• New Zealand has produced interesting varietal Cab Franc
Gamay
In the Vineyard
Features
• medium-sized purple berries
• high acidity and low tannin
Susceptibility
• greatest problem is gray rot in wet or humid conditions
Yield
• high—notoriously so
• in the 14th Century, Philip the Bold, the first of the Valois Dukes of Burgundy, ordered
that the grape be uprooted from the Cote d’Or, describing it as “mechante et desloyale”
(evil and disloyal) because of the dismal quality of wine produced from its high yields
• in Beaujolais, pruning to the gobelet style (a small, free-standing bush) is used to
restrain the yields
Soils and Climate
• best expression has been on granitic soils with sand and clay at high altitudes
• but the vine is adaptable to other soils such as limestone soils
• best in cool climates
In the Winery
Vinification and Ageing
• can be made using traditional red wine vinification
• most famous expression is from a modified form of carbonic maceration, a rapid, whole
bunch fermentation conducted under a veil of CO2 designed to emphasize fruitiness of
the variety while de-emphasizing tannin and naturally high acidity
• early release and early consumption is most common though some of the finest
examples can improve with short-term ageing of usually not more than 2 or 3 years
• Nouveau style released very soon after completing vinification—third Thursday in
November of the vintage year
Common Aromatic Descriptors
• Fruit: red fruits of strawberry, raspberry, and cherry; banana—an aroma most
associated with the vinification technique common to the variety
• Other: occasionally black pepper notes
• Palate: typically soft tannins, med-high acidity and a medium-deep purple color
Noted Regions
Spiritual Home
• France’s Burgundy region
• more specifically, the southern, mountainous region of Beaujolais
• top quality generally comes from the wines from 10 villages of the regions which are
known as crus (growths)—familiar crus include Morgon, Moulin-a-Vent, and St.-Amour
Other Regions
• no other region has been as successful with Gamay as Beaujolais has, but it is grown in
the Loire Valley and has produced good wines in Ontario and Switzerland
Zinfandel
In the Vineyard
Features
• large bunches capable of reaching almost ridiculously high sugar levels (up to 17%+
potential alcohol)
• variety ripens early, but unevenly; same bunch may carry unripe, ripe, and raisined
berries
• uncertain origins of the vine inspired an interesting detective search—DNA testing has
now proven that the vine is descended from a vine native to Croatia
Susceptibility
• humid conditions can lead to bunch rot
• that famous ripeness can be a problem and, if not carefully observed,
shriveling/raisining can be detrimental to wine quality
Yield
• generally high, but some of the best examples come from very low-yielding old vines
Soils and Climate
• quite adaptable to different soils
• climate is a bigger issue—prefers a long warm growing season—Mediterranean style
• in hot years, raisining and absurdly high sugar levels can occur
In the Winery
Vinification and Ageing
• produced in a wide variety of styles from red table wine to “blush” styles, sparkling,
and port-style dessert wines
• red wine vinification is fairly standard, though historically, it was not a variety
sufficiently valued to justify the expense of new oak barrels
• that has, of course, changed
• good for mid-term ageing with finest examples lasting and improving for 10-12 years
Common Aromatic Descriptors
• Fruit: very berry, mixed berry compote, brambleberry, blackberry, raspberry
• Dried Fruit: dates, prunes, raisins
• Other: black pepper, black tea, herbs, chocolate
• Palate: low acidity, low-med tannins, high alcohol
Noted Regions
Spiritual Home
• even if the vine is of Croation origin, its real home has become California where it is
widely grown
• most important in California is Sonoma County, but also Amador County—both of
which hold old vineyards; some in Napa, too
Other Regions
• Southern Italian region of Puglia (the spiked heel of the Italian boot) where a
genetically identical vine called Primitivo has been discovered
• wines of quality are emerging from Puglia, but they haven’t they caught up to
California—can be good value nonetheless

Wine Fundamentals 1 Class 4

Service

Proper service of wine is important in the hospitality setting for various reasons, and the
philosophies and techniques developed in that environment can also be applied to the
more casual home environment. What follows is an outline of the sommelier’s role in the service of wine. In the actual restaurant situation, the sommelier’s job description is likely to be
considerably broader than the relatively simple service of wine, but service is, from the
perspective of the guest, of primary significance. It remains a truism of the hospitality industry that guests are much more inclined to forgive bad food than they are bad or indifferent or arrogant service. Most of what we call “bad” service flows out of attitude, but poor technique is also an issue.

Client Expectations

Restaurant customers arrive with a set of expectations and it is up to the sommelier to
manage those expectations. As I’ve indicated above, the primary expectation is that they will be treated hospitably and in this it is worth remembering that the word “hospitality” is derived from the Greek hospes, which means “host” or, more broadly, “to care”. In other, similar derivatives of the original Greek, we get words such as hospice and
hospital where the meaning “to care” is closer to the surface. The good restaurant employee never forgets that the first requirement is to care for the guest and no amount of knowledge or technical prowess can compensate for a lack of care. That said, technical skill in the service of wine is important in the restaurant industry and is all too often overlooked.

Handling the Bottle

The basic principle in handling a bottle of wine is simply stated: all wines, no matter
their price or provenance, should be handled as though they are fine, old bottles. This means that they should be handled gently with a minimum of agitation which, in a
fine old bottle, would disturb sediment and make separation of the wine from sediment
difficult. Young wines which will not be decanted should be presented to the host from the right,
the label upright; the server will repeat the name of the wine and the vintage to ensure
that the correct wine has be brought to the table. Then the wine will be placed upright on the table, ideally on some form of coaster before opening.

The Corkscrew

There are various styles of corkscrews available, some specifically designed for home
use and some designed with mobility in mind. The most familiar corkscrew generally used in the restaurant environment in commonly known as the “waiter’s corkscrew” and consists of a small blade used to cut the foil capsule, a worm or screw, and a bolster or bracing device to rest against the lip of the bottle to aid in the leverage used to extract the cork.

Extracting

The gentle handling of the bottle should continue when the cork is extracted; the bottle
should not be wrestled with in the air, put between the knees or under the arm, twisted,
turned, bent or beaten. It should remain upright on the table. The foil covering of the cork, or “capsule” should be cut below the lip to ensure that the wine does not come into contact with the capsule when the wine is poured. Throughout the 19th century and continuing until roughly the end of the first world war, the capsule was typically lead-based and contact with the wine could cause taint this is, of course, no longer the case, but cutting below the lip is a gesture toward the
past and maintains the principle that all wine be treated with the same respect given to fine old bottles. After the capsule is cut, it should be inspected for signs of mold or leakage and placed
on a side plate. The top of the bottle should also be inspected and wiped with a clean cloth.
The worm of the corkscrew should be inserted at a slight angle and then screwed down
to an appropriate depth; the lever should be set against the bottle lip and the cork slowly
extracted until it is almost clear of the bottle. At this point the corkscrew should be straightened and the cork eased out the last few millimeters using thumb and forefinger. The cork should then be twisted off the worm, taking care that the end which had been in contact with the wine (known as the “mirror”) is not touched. The cork should be placed on a side plate with the capsule and presented to the host for his or her inspection should s/he desire to examine them; these should be removed after the wine is poured. The lip of the bottle should again be wiped with a clean cloth before the wine is poured.
Opening a bottle of white wine obeys the same principles of gentleness, capsule-cutting, and cork-extraction; however, the wine should be brought to the table in a bucket. The wine may be opened in the bucket, but the current dominant approach is to open the bottle following the same procedures as for red wine. Depending on the desires of the guest regarding service temperature, the wine may be returned to the bucket or left on the table.

Sparkling Wine Service

The basic principles involved in opening a bottle of still wine are observed when
opening a bottle of sparkling wine, but there are differences, most of which are dictated
soley for the issue of safety. Sparkling wine is bottled under considerable pressure—5 to 6 atmospheres—and can be dangerous if mishandled. For this reason, it is opened in an ice bucket with the cork pointing away from guests, the server making sure that at all times s/he maintains pressure on the top of the cork to guarantee that it doesn’t shoot out of the bottle like a bullet.
The capsule is removed, the cage untwisted and carefully removed, with pressure
maintained by alternating thumbs. The cork should be covered with a cloth and gently twisted out of the bottle without popping.

Decanting

There are three reasons to decant a bottle wine: the first and most important is to
separate the clear wine from the sediment in wines which have thrown a deposit; young
wines are also often decanted to aerate the wine and volatilize their aromatic components
or “open them up”; third, decanting wine is a form of entertainment and showmanship. Young wines to be decanted for the purpose of aeration may be poured quite aggressively into a decanter. Older wines, however, should be poured carefully, ideally from a pouring basket into
which the wine bottle has been placed upon removal from the cellar. Wines which have been properly stored on their sides with the labels up will have sediment adhering to one side of the bottle. By placing the wine into a basket immediately, this sediment should not be disturbed.
The whole capsule should be removed, the bottle cleaned, and the cork extracted. With a light source beneath the bottle, the wine should be slowly poured into a clean decanter, with pouring stopped as the sediment reaches the shoulder of the bottle. There should not be much more than an ounce left in the bottle if the wine has been properly decanted—the amount remaining is sometimes known as the “waiter’s share”.

Temperature

The goal attached to wine service temperature is simply stated: we want to create a
situation in which the wine can best express its structure and aroma. It remains a truism that this rarely happens in restaurants, with the common complaint that most restaurants serve white wines too cold and red wines too warm. Lack of knowledge is perhaps not the most common reason for this—it is expensive and space-consuming to have multiple storage locations at different temperatures for different wine styles.

Reds
To formulate a general rule of thumb for service temperatures, we typically consider the
weight and maturity of the wine: typically, heavier wines are served at warmer temperatures, lighter wines at cooler temperatures. This is so largely because of tannin which is emphasized at cooler temperatures. Ideal service temperatures for full-bodied, tannic red wines are between 16—18 C. For medium bodied red wines, a good temperature range is 13-16 C especially light-bodied reds can be served as low as 8-12 C.

Whites

The same basic rule applies to white wine service with one essential difference cropping
up where sweetness is also a factor. Acidity is emphasized at cooler temperatures and in sweet wines where balancing acidity needs to be emphasized, cooler temperatures are recommended even for weighty wines. For full-bodied whites, such as top quality Chardonnay, temperatures as low as 10 and as high as 14 C are recommended, for medium bodied whites 8-10 C, for sweet whites with lowish acidity and light whites, temperatures between 4-8 C are fine.

Gewurztraminer

In the Vineyard

Features

-pink-red-blue skinned variety (depending on growing conditions) with intense, instantly
recognizable aromas and usually deep colour (a peachy hue, on occasion)
-often a love-it or hate-it grape variety
-usually low and unreliable yields, but some regions manage mid-level yields
-ripens unevenly and often suffers drop in acidity at ripening and requires a long season in cool areas

Susceptibility

-coulure in wet, cool springs
-powdery mildew
-rot a problem in fall, but can be noble in Alsace especially

Soils and Climate

-tends to do best in relatively heavy soils such as those with moderate clay content
-in Alsace in particular, it tends to be planted in more fertile sites where other varieties
would suffer drops in quality

In the Winery

Vinification and Ageing

-pink skin often leads to whites with noticeably deep, golden colour, and skin contact an
issue; often however, the variety is pressed slowly to allow some contact to increase
aromatics
-high sugar levels equate to high alcohol levels, which in this variety are combined with
low acidity—often some bitterness on the finish
-inert vessels, cool temperatures
-only the best, most densely concentrated age; most are designed for early consumption

Common Aromatic Descriptors

-Fruit: lychee
-Spices: ginger, cinnamon
-Floral: roses and Turkish delight
-Other: hair spray, lanolin based skin creams, musk

Noted Regions

-it’s difficult to ascribe a spiritual home to this variety
-it is part of the Traminer family and likely made its way to France and Germany from
northern Italy
-the finest dry Gewurz undoubtedly comes from Alsace where sweet versions also
appear
-in Germany, the Pfalz offers good examples
-in the new world, New Zealand, Australia, Washington, Oregon, California, Chile, and
Canada all offer interesting versions


Pinot Gris

In the Vineyard

Features

-a mutation of Pinot Noir, it can look identical to the parent vine in the vineyard
-berries can vary from a brownish pink to a grayish blue to green
-can suffer drop in acidity at ripening

Susceptibility

-same issues as Pinot Noir, but generally hardy variety

Soils and Climate

-prefers deep soils in temperate climate, especially mineral rich soils

In the Winery

Vinification and Ageing

-variable approaches from cool fermentation in stainless steel to barrel fermentation at
warmer temperatures; also occasionally done in a late harvest and/or botrytis affected
dessert style (especially in Alsace, but also in New World, especially Oregon)
-tradition in Italy is to pick earlier to preserve med-high acidity, though typical
expression elsewhere is low-med acid
-the variety typically offers plenty of flavour extract and winemakers outside of Italy
tend to want to capitalize on that

Common Aromatic Descriptors

-Fruit: apple, pear, apricot
-Other: honey, nuts, musk, honeysuckle
-Palate: variable acidity, med-full body, range of sweetness levels

Noted Regions

-once interplanted with Pinot Noir in Burgundy where it softened the style of Burgundy,
PG is now most important in Alsace where it makes full-bodied dry whites and fabulous
late harvested sweet whites
-also important in Italy where, as Pinot Grigio, it makes a fairly neutral, light white
-of great and ever-increasing significance in Oregon
-also important in Germany where it is called either Rulander or Grauburgunder


Muscat

In the Vineyard

Features

-a large family of grapes which may be white, black, or pink
-best for wine production is the smaller berried Muscat a petit grains
-intense aromatics may be reined in some with dry vinification

Susceptibility

-both powdery and downy mildews
-great problems with insect infestation

Soils and Climate

-fertile, deep soils give good yields
-prefers warm climate—in cooler climates, such as Alsace, yield is very irregular

In the Winery

Vinification and Ageing

-extraordinary variation, from still and dry to sweet and sparkling to fortified
-one constant is the avoidance of wood which would compromise the forthright aromas
-often fortified: classic southern French versions are aged for considerable periods after
fortification, but generally do not improve in bottle

Common Aromatic Descriptors

-Fruit: green grapes, raisins, orange marmalade
-Floral: roses
-musk (of course)
-typically low in acidity

Noted Regions

Spiritual Home

-Greece and North Africa; Piemonte (for frizzante and spumante wines; ie lightly and
fully sparkling)

Other Regions

-Italy, Australia, Alsace, southern France


Chenin Blanc

In the Vineyard

Features

-high acid variety makes it popular for use in the brandy industry in the new world
-buds early, ripens early, but often left late on vine

Susceptibility

-frost, powdery mildew
-botrytis, which can be a good thing in sweet wine production

Soils and Climate

-adaptable, but best expression in calcium rich soils
-classic sweet wines from cool climates, but will grow in warm climates and provide
high yields

In the Winery

Vinification and Ageing

-highly dependent on vintage, especially in classic Loire regions
-in favourable years, it is often vinified as a sweet wine, often from botrytis-affected
grapes
-cool fermentation for dry whites

Common Aromatic Descriptors

-Fruit: apples, apricots
-Other: nuts, honey
-Palate: high acidity, medium alcohol, full range of sweetness levels

Noted Regions

Spiritual Home

-the central Loire valley—Anjou-Tourraine
-appellations of Savennieres, Coteaux du Layon, and Vouvray

Other Regions

-South Africa, where it is known as Steen
-Australia and California also important


Riesling

In the Vineyard

Features

-compact clusters of small berries
-generally early budding and late ripening, but this can be mitigated by vineyard features
-typically high acid levels

Susceptibility

-relatively hardy variety with good cold and frost resistance
-can be susceptible to grey rot and coulure if cold and wet at flowering

Soils and Climate

-soils should be well-drained, but the variety is quite adaptable
-greatest expressions in slate soils and sandy loam
-tends to do best in cool climates such as Germany and northern France provide

In the Winery

Vinification and Ageing

-varied approaches to vinification depending on the desired style of wine, but generally
fermentation takes place in inert vessel at cool temperatures
-high acid levels are often combined with residual sugar giving a wine of great longevity
-though the variety does not respond to new wood, maturation in old barrels (very old,
that is) can soften the complexion of the wine
-ages exceptionally well, particularly when both sugar and acid are in abundance

Common Aromatic Descriptors

-aroma is intimately linked to soil and age
-Fruit: lime and lemon peel, peach, quince, apricot
-Other: kerosene (what the British call “petrol”) is observed in mature Riesling
-in those affected by noble rot we often find aromas of honey, raisin and spice
-in icewine, lemon, peach, and baked apple notes are not uncommon

Noted Regions

Spiritual Home

-Germany, where it is now the most planted variety all over the 13 regions of that
country
-two regions most famous are the Mosel-Saar-Ruwer and the Rheingau

Other Regions

-for dry Riesling, Alsace may be the finest
-also important in Canada, Australia, and various central European countries like Austria

Wine Fundamentals 1 Class 3

Pinot Noir ............................... Cabernet Sauvignon


Food and Wine

This topic has had a lot of press lately and there seems to be a great deal of conflicting information and attitudes out there. The basic principle of food and wine matching is very simple—if it works for you, it’s good.
Both wine and food are things which bring us pleasure, and there’s no point in developing anxieties over serving just the right this or that with just the right that or this. We live in an increasingly cosmopolitan world, and so it’s worthwhile looking at the old guard before we toss it out.
The most classical,they are actually known as “classical matches”,form of wine and food matching is to marry the wines of a region with the foods of a region, based on the argument that the two evolved together. They have a sort of community relationship. Some examples are the Riesling of Alsace with choucroute garni; Barolo with truffles and game; Muscadet with oysters; red Bordeaux with lamb.
What we soon observe when looking at classical matches is that most of them observe some very basic principles that can be applied to other wine and food matches. There are a few worthwhile rules of thumb to observe to avoid truly disastrous meals and getting at those rules is quite simple—we only have to go back to the basic components of wine and observe how they interact with the various components of food.

Weight, Intensity

The central consideration for the food and particularly to sauces and cooking styles: we match weight to weight—light to light, heavy to heavy. Wine should not be heavier. Primary issue here is balance. Full bodied wine matched with full bodied food. Intensity can act as a counterbalance to weight particularly evident with rich, fat laden foods matched with light-bodied, but intensely flavoured wine in this case we are looking for contrast.

Acid, Salt, Sweet, Bitter, Tannin, Umami

Acid

Some regard acidity as the most important consideration after weight, and sometimes before weight.
It functions, in both wine and food, as a counterbalance to sweetness, and to fat where both sweetness and fat coat and tire the palate, acid refreshes and cleans. It is therefore an essential component in wines matched to rich dishes such as those based on butter or cream, oily foods such as deep-fried goodies, oily fish and buttery shellfish, and also cuts through high salt foods such as oysters.
Acidity can function as well as a mirroring taste for relatively high acid foods such as tomato-based dishes, and dishes with lemon and capers. Acidity in food often clashes with tannins in red wines.

Saltiness

For particularly salty dishes, typically look to a mix of sweetness and acid. Salty old cheeses usually require sweet wine match. It will also accentuate the effect of alcohol. Acidity cuts saltiness (you lick the salt before you bite the lemon when doing tequila shots).

Sweetness

Perception of sweetness is governed by two factors. The level of residual sugar, and the level of balancing acidity. Sweetness can be matched with mildly spicy food because sweetness can mask spiciness. Sweetness can offer matching flavours for moderately sweet dishes.
Sweetness is a fine foil for salt: as in old cheeses; and also as in dishes based on soy. In food, sweetness needs to be matched with a wine at least as sweet or the wine may taste thin and acid. Weight is still important, but sweetness level even moreso.
Tannin and sweetness rarely successfully match (red wines end up tasting drier).

Tannin and Bitter

Typically bitter wines can be matched with like flavours especially grilled or charred foods how ever this can also cause too much bitterness and is a tricky one. Particularly tannic wine typically require meats of dense texture. Chewiness and protein moderates tannin. Tannic wines are diminished with rare meats due to the iron in blood. The fat of meat also coats the mouth and softens tannic impressions.

Umami

The so-called fifth taste is associated with mouthfeel and the effects especially of glutamates in the mouth, msg especially and salt. The concept is ancient and Japanese and has been variously translated, the current standard seems to be deliciousness. Ask yourself: given all of the other components of a wine, is it also delicious? Does it have a moreish quality; do you say, yummy, that tastes good I'd like another sip?

Language Development

Intensity (Aroma)

This is a word which tends to present difficulties early on, and it probably should. The reason it probably should is simple it is a relative term, and to use it effectively, you have to be able to relate it to a decent number of wines. The useful relative terms are as follows. Not aromatic; moderately aromatic; highly aromatic. This seems rather boring, but there are other ways to speak of these. For a wine which is not aromatic which presents very little aroma at the time of
primary olfaction, we occasionally call the wine shy, or sometimes dumb. We borrow this language from the human personality and by doing so we want to explain that the wine is not expressive, not forthcoming, or is introverted.
Moderately aromatic wines occupy the great middle ground neither introverted nor extroverted, they are wines which do not call attention to themselves, but do have something to say, and say it at a normal conversational volume. These wines may be subtle, balanced, seductive. Highly aromatic wines are extroverts, and they have a tendency to shout, wear tuxedo tshirts etc. Very often, their intense aromas are their most interesting trait and the language we use often borrows from the extroverted character type are words like aggressive, showy, forthright, forward, exuberant.

Pinot Noir

Some believe this to be a very ancient grape variety native to France. For some, it is the greatest of all grapes, capable of providing the most ethereal, spiritual, intense pleasure. At the same time, the most ardent lover will admit that Pinot Noir is also often the worst of wines, source of nothing but disappointment. Yet they keep drinking it, looking for that one bottle in a thousand which is truly sublime. Others simply give up on it, acknowledging that it isn’t really worth the trouble though most of them move on to grapes with similar tendencies like Italy’s Nebbiolo, with which Pinot is sometimes compared, though not for flavour for uniqueness.
It is also a tough grape to grow, fickle, false, unstable, changeable, unfaithful the same words can be applied to the grape once it hits the bottle.
Because of its tendency to betray both its grower and its drinker, it is sometimes known as the heartbreak grape or the gypsy grape.

In the Vineyard

Features

Compact bunches with occasional variation in skin thickness and berry size.
Buds early and ripens early.
Vines do not live long—50 years is very old for Pinot.
Variety is unstable and prone to genetic mutation there are many clones, for example many different clones of Pinot producing wines with different characteristics.

Susceptibility

Rot is a significant problem—especially in the fall after rain. Early budding makes it vulnerable to spring frosts. Vines are relatively short-lived.

Soils and Climate

Prefers well-drained, deep soils, especially with limestone subsoils. Likes the chalky, calcium rich soils of champagne. Prefers cooler, marginal, temperate sites. In warm climates, it tends to flatness and cooked flavours, losing its essential aromas.

In the Winery

Vinification and Ageing

Chaptalization common in Burgundy. Sometimes new oak is used for maturation, but tradition suggests that this can overwhelm what is an essentially delicate wine older oak may be best.
New world tends to longer macerations to extract colour and tannin. Variety is typically low to mid tannin and medium to low acid with usually pale ruby colour.

Aromas and Taste

Fruit: strawberry, strawberry jam, black cherry, plum, raspberry.
Earthy: leather, game, mushrooms, beetroot, barnyard.
Floral: violets.
Low-medium tannin, medium acidity, medium body.

Noted Regions

Spiritual home is central France in Champagne and Burgundy for still wines, it is Burgundy foremost, especially the villages of the Cotes de Nuits.

Other regions are Russian River Valley and Carneros in California, as well as the Santa Lucia Highlands. Willamette Valley of Oregon. New Zealand especially the Nelson region and Central Otago. Parts of Australia the Yarra Valley and Tasmania.


Cabernet Sauvignon

Along with Merlot, the most important of the international varieties it is planted everywhere although it does best in moderate to warm climates cooler climates often don’t have enough heat for ripening and often result in harder green flavours.

In the Vineyard

Features

Thick skins and loose bunches—buds late and ripens late.
Small, blue-black berries with very large pips and small amount of pulp.
Wood tends to be tough.

Susceptibility

Powdery mildew (oidium) a problem in some climates and rot in wet, cool autumns.
Vine, though is generally hardy and adaptable.

Soils and Climate

Quite adaptable, but generally needs a warm soil because of late ripening.
Bordeaux—deep, gravely soil.
Coonawarra—limestone subsoil with red loam on top. Also does well in rich alluvial soil of the Napa Valley.

In the Winery

Vinification and Ageing

Natural affinity for new oak (vanilla and spice).
Durable and can stand high temperature fermentation and long-ageing in oak as well as extended maceration after fermentation.
Ages very well especially in Bordeaux.

Aroma and Taste

Fruit: black currant (cassis), black cherry, blackberry.
Earthy: cigar box, tobacco.
Herbal: mint in US, eucalyptus in OZ.
Can have vegetal, bell pepper streak if a little under ripe.
Also tannic, concentrated, full-bodied, deep color.

Noted Regions

Spiritual home Bordeaux, France, especially the left bank districts of the Medoc, Graves and the Haut-Medoc. More specifically, the Haut-Medoc communes of Pauillac, St.-Estephe, St.-Julien and Margaux as well as the commune of Pessac-Leognan in the Graves district a little further south.

Other regions California especially the Napa Valley. Australia especially Coonawarra. Certain parts of Italy and Spain also excel with CS as do Washington State, Argentina, and Chile.

Wine Fundamentals 1 Class 2

Sauvignon Blanc .............................. Chardonnay

How to Read a Label

Learning to read wine labels and to understand what the various items displayed on them mean can be a life-long pursuit, but there are a couple of important things to remember that can reduce confusion.
Even the most seasoned veteran wine buyer would probably be fibbing if s/he said s/he could confidently read every label.
Certain items appear on every label and constitute international standards: Volume, Alcohol level, Address of responsible party and Country of origin.
There are, however, two basic approaches to wine labeling: one is the varietal approach; the other is the geographical approach.
Either one of these may be augmented by the addition of a brand name which, if you like, you can understand as a third approach.
The varietal and the geographical may also be used together and, for various reasons, increasingly are. The essential difference between the two approaches is a philosophical one: to the question, “What most influences the taste of a wine?” the answers will differ.

Geographical Labels

Geographical labels are primarily identified with old world or European wines. Part of the reason for this is that the European Union takes the French approach as its model for wine legislation.
In the wake of the phylloxera devastation and the various forms of fraud and adulteration which were common in the early part of this century, the French government designed a system which would try to guarantee the authenticity of quality French wines.
Authenticity in this case meant that the wine came from a particular place (that is, an appellation), and followed the local traditions of viticulture and winemaking (that is, was controlled).
This would effectively protect both consumers and producers.
Today, the EU recognizes two classes of wine: Table Wine, and Quality Wine Produced in a Specific Region (QWPSR)—in French, the acronym is VQPRD
Though it is a simplification, the French choice to label their quality wine with geographical names flows from their answer to a question as to what most influences the taste of the wine.
The answer to that question has long been that it is terroir that most influences the taste. This belief is held so deeply that for many regions, it is illegal to label a wine with its grape variety and still maintain the quality designation.

Governing Bodies and Label Notation

Most countries which export wine (all of the EU countries) have governing bodies which oversee and regulate their wine industries. Though the name of the governing body itself rarely, if ever, appears on the label, the
governing body is responsible for approving the wine, usually first and
foremost on the geographical origin of wine, but also for issues such as
grape variety, yields, growing techniques and vinification.
It is important to be able to identify the marks of these governing bodies on labels, which are designed to guarantee the wine’s authenticity.
The following lists the marks of some of the governing bodies—all of the initials are acronyms in the native languages stating that the wine’s geographical place name is authentic and that the growing and making of the wine is controlled and regulated.

Some Examples
AOC (sometimes just AC)—appellation d’origine controlée—France
DOC(G)—denominazione di origine controllata (e garantita)—Italy
DO(Ca)—denominación de origem (calificada)—Spain
DOC—denominaçao de origem controlada—Portugal
Qba/Qmp—qualitätswein (bestimmter anbaugebiete) (mit prädikat)—Germany
GI—geographic indication--Australia
AVA—american viticultural area—United States
WO—wine of origin—South Africa

Varietal Labels

A varietally labeled wine is simply one in which the grape variety or varieties are prominent. Though certain European wine-growing regions have used the varietal approach combined with the geographical (Germany and Alsace are examples) for many years, varietally labeled wines are most identified with the New World wines of North and South America, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
Like the geographical approach to labels, the varietal approach asks the question: What most influences the taste of wine?
It may be, however, that it also asks: What do consumers want?
The answer will likely be different depending on the market, but there is little doubt that new world and British consumers have answered overwhelmingly that they prefer varietally labeled wines.
At the upper end of the market, this is less true, but certainly in less expensive wines, varietal wines are dominant.
Increasingly, however, we are seeing wine labels which feature both grape variety and growing region in equal balance. This is partly due to the influence of the EU which has worked with some new world countries to help them develop geographically based authentication systems with the threat that if they don’t, they will lose access to the European market.
The United States has developed the AVA (American Viticultural Area); Canada has the VQA (Vintner’s Quality Alliance); and Australia is working to establish a system based on what it calls a GI (Geographic Indication)
Brands.
There is a third option to labeling, the brand.
The focus with branded wines will generally be to ensure the consumer a consistency of product. Branded labels are often combined with geographical and varietal terms on the labels. Though it is very often the least expensive wines on the market that are marketed based on brand, some of the world’s most famous wines are, basically, brand names. Chateau Mouton-Rothschild, for example, is a brand name for a wine which is properly described as AOC Pauillac.

Some Things to Think About

In practice today, geography, variety, and brand (or some form on proprietary name, such as “Bin 65” or “Yellow Label”) are often mixed on labels.
Geographical labels are often criticized for making unreasonable demands on consumers and shooting themselves in the foot in the process. Italy, for example, now has over 300 DOC zones.
Who, ask the critics, has time to do a PhD in geography while looking for a bottle of wine to serve with chicken parmagian?
Critics of varietally labeled wines counter that the crutch of varietalism (grape labeling) has led consumers to an ever-shrinking set of varietal wines at the expense of wonderful blended wines and varieties which are a little more difficult to pronounce. There has been, in other words, a flattening out of the market—200 Chardonnays to choose from, but little else.
This, in turn, has led to growers planting vines based solely on the market share their prospective varieties hold, not on the time-honoured principles of terroir.
Chardonnay, for example, will grow anywhere; but it won’t grow wonderfully well
anywhere. For some, the power of a small number of varieties has fuelled the decline of Romance in the world of wine the discovery of an intimacy between grape, place and the mind of a maker which suggests a harmony with the natural world which is deep, profound, resonant, and life-affirming.

Language Development

Colour

As we’ve mentioned, colour tells us much about a wine and is affected by several
factors—grape variety, climate, method of vinification, age.
In the interests of developing some vocabulary related to colour—vocabulary we will work on over the coming weeks I include here a standard colour progression for red and white wines.

Reds

Purple, mauve, lilac, and blue-black colours dominate in young red wines made from heavily pigmented varieties, and most never leave this stage; they are consumed.
Ruby often still dark, but no longer dominated by purple and blue hue; this is
common for young wines from more lightly pigmented varieties for some wines, this is the plateau of good drinkability usually 1-3 years.
Red or Garnet Red an intermediate stage common in fine wine usually 3-5 years.
Red-Brown (brick or tile red) brownish tinge develops at rim; most fine wines at
their peak here usually 5-10 years.
Mahogany a darker tint at the confluence of the red/brown axis most wines do not reach this stage in good health 10-15 years or more.
Amber Brown a very old wine; and an acquired taste.

Whites

Pale Yellow/Green common to cool-climate whites with the greenish reflection not often present in warm-climate wines.
Light Yellow most common for dry white wines.
Yellow/Gold common in young sweet wines and also in 2-4 year old wines which
have been aged in wood.
Gold next stage for sweet wines, and for very fine dry table wines after 4-6 years.
Yellow/Brown may be the peak of a mature sweet wine, but typically indicates
senility in dry whites, oxidation.

Sauvignon Blanc

In the Vineyard

Features

Mid-sized berries in tight bunches
High acid levels
Late budding and early ripening, which makes it ideal for cool climates
Susceptibility
Highly susceptible to Botrytis
Powdery Mildew
Black rot on fertile soils
Soils
Most successful on chalk and flint (silex)
Gravel, loam

Climate

Ideal for cool climate but likes sun
Long growing season for sweet styles (the grape is rarely found as a single variety sweet wine—it is blended, however, with Semillon to produce one of the world’s most famous sweeties, Sauternes).

In the Winery

Vinification and Ageing

Classic style is cool fermentation in inert vessel with no MLF to retain fruit and acidity common in the Loire Valley and New Zealand.
Other classic style is blended and aged in wood for white Bordeaux and some new world wines.
New World experiments with oak and MLF designed to tame the wild aroma of the grape have been marginally successful and given birth to Sauvignon often in the guise of Fume Blanc which tastes much like barrel-fermented Chardonnay.
Generally designed for early drinking, but when blended with Semillon in Sauternes and dry white Bordeaux, the wines age well though not because of the Sauvignon—more like in spite of the Sauvignon.

Aroma and Taste

Fruit: gooseberry, passion fruit, kiwi, lime and lemon zest, grapefruit, green fig.
Vegetal: asparagus, green pepper, cut grass, green beans.
Earthy: wet stone, gunpowder and flint, mineral.
Cat’s pee (this familiar descriptor seems to be going by the wayside in favour of
‘currant flowers’ or ‘black currant bud’), armpit sweat.
High acidity, medium alcohol, dry and sweet styles.

Noted Regions

Spiritual Home eastern Loire Valley in appellations of Sancerre, Pouilly-Fume, Quincy, and Menetou-Salon. Bordeaux—especially Graves, Entre-Deux-Mers, and Sauternes.

Other important areas New Zealand’s South Island Region of Marlborough and other areas of New Zealand. Sonoma and Napa Valley California. Grown in most cool climate countries, Canada, parts of Australia, Chile, Italy, South
Africa.

Chardonnay

In the Vineyard

Features

Large berries, usually with small brown spots.
Early budding and ripening.
High sugar capability.
Neutral grape, which makes it as attractive to a winemaker as a blank canvas is to a painter.

Susceptibility

Generally quite hardy but susceptible to powdery mildew, frost, and uneven fruit set. Acidity drops quickly at ripening, which can make for flabby wines (or require acid adjustments).

Soils and Climate

Highly adaptable to different soils and climates.
Classic expressions are from limestone soils, or other calcium rich soils with good
drainage such as chalky marl—also does well on sandstone.
Poor results in wet soils.
In warm climates, has a tendency to over ripen.

In the Winery

Vinification and Ageing

Anything goes grape but there are two classic styles.
Inert vessels produce neutral, occasionally apple-scented wines with crisp acids and mineral tones. Chablis is the classic expression.
Oak ageing or barrel fermentation with MLF, fatter, buttery, vanilla-scented wines, often with tropical fruit scents White Burgundies from the Cote d’Or are the classic expression; many New World wines are made in a similar style.
Tropical fruit notes common to new world styles often a result of brief skin contact.
Cool climate—chaptalization (sugar added during fermentation to increase alcohol and body); Warm climate—acidification.
Some wines can age well up to 10 years and beyond, but this is personal taste.

Aroma and Taste

Fruit: apple (sometimes baked), pear, lemon, mango, pineapple, peach.
Dairy/Bakery: cream, butter, biscuits, yeast.
Woody: oak, vanilla, toast, smoke.
Caramelized: honey, butterscotch.
Nutty: popcorn, almond, hazelnut in older wines.
Medium to high acidity and the potential for high alcohol.

Noted Regions

Spiritual home Burgundy in central France. More specifically, Chablis, the Cote de Beaune, and the southern areas of Burgundy in the Maconnais (Pouilly-Fuisse).
Most specifically, the villages of Meursault, Chassagne-Montrachet, and Puligny-
Montrachet on the Cote de Beaune in Burgundy. Champagne.

Other important areas California especially Napa and Sonoma, though the grape is grown all over California. Australia especially South Australia. Italy especially the Langhe hills in the north-western region of Piemonte.
Everywhere else on earth, from India to Canada.

Wine Fundamentals 1 Class 1

The History of Wine

Place in Consciousness - Religious and Cultural

From its most ancient origins, wine has been filled with sacramental meaning and has often operated as a form of connection with spiritual realms which are beyond the day-to-day lives of human beings.
It was, too, a form of medicine, charged with healing powers, dulling pain, providing sleep to the insomniac, aiding in the digestion of food. By extension, it was, as well, a form of spiritual medicine, giving comfort, courage, renewal, lifting inhibitions, and was capable of peeling back the veil separating humanity from the sacred a.k.a. getting pissed drunk.
Many cultures, for example, have concepts of ‘sacred drunkenness’ though it is not always wine which is used to reach this state.
In mythological terms, we see it linked often with blood in the Christian Eucharist as the stand-in for the blood of Christ, as the blood of Dionysus in Greek myth, or of Bacchus in Roman myth.
In the medical world, it worked as an antiseptic mixed with water, it made the water drinkable; and the alcohol in it could clean wounds. It has long had the cachet of luxury, largely because from earliest times it was available only to a privileged few. In the near east, grain was the standard crop and ale the beverage of the masses. Later, with the Greeks and the Romans, we see the democratization of wine.

Origins and Movements - Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans

There are many different species of grapes some native to Europe and the Middle East, some to North America, and some to Asia.
What we are interested in, however, is the Euro-Middle Eastern species known as vitis vinifera, simply because the species native to other parts of the world are very rarely cultivated as wine making grapes, though they do have a certain significance to the world of wine.
Vitis vinifera translates as the ‘wine bearing grape’.
There is general agreement among historians about roughly when and where the vine was first cultivated. Current speculation suggests that this first happened in the area known as Transcaucasia in the foothills of the Caucasus mountains of present-day Georgia and Armenia. Carbon dating of petrified seed or pips suggests that this was likely around 7 000-5 000 BCE ???
From there knowledge of winemaking, viticulture, and the appreciation of wine spread along trade routes into the Middle East. The important Tigris and Euphrates rivers have their sources in the Caucasus range. Into Mesopotamia where Sumerian culture was located, to Egypt and other cultures of the Middle East, such as Phoenici.
Phoenicians from the land which is today Lebanon were a people who traded and expanded their empire. They founded Carthage in North Africa, later in Spain and spread their influence all over the Mediterranean basin. They likely were the first to bring the vine to Western Europe the cultivated vine, that is.
Greeks likely first discovered wine through the influence of Middle Eastern cultures, with whom they traded, but Greek culture adopted the vine and wine so much so that along with olive oil it became their primary product for export.
Greeks took the vine to Italy, a place they found conducive to the vine, and to France where they founded a colony at present-day Marseilles.
Though Greek influence is still evident in France, it is much more obvious in southern Italy, where the names of a number of grape varieties pay homage to the Greek inheritance Greco, Grechetto, Aglianico. Roman culture expanded the vine immensely, and the expansion of the Roman Empire brought the vine to some of the famous sites of today to Burgundy, to Bordeaux, to Champagne, Alsace, the Rhine and Mosel in Germany, along the Danube.
Everywhere they went, they planted the vine essential food for the army.

Impact of Disease, Trade, Exploration

Post-Roman Empire, through the Middle Ages, viticulture was kept alive by the Church in Europe, most especially by the Benedictine and Cistercian Orders.
The Benedictine Order was Europe’s most powerful and spread out all over Europe and took viticulture with them. Wine was essential not just for the Mass, but also as a daily food in a time before potable water was widely available
It was also, of course, a saleable product, and contributed revenue to the Orders.
The Monastic Orders of the Middle Ages operated as multinational corporations there were, for example, over 1 000 Benedictine monasteries spread around Europe, and in a pre-industrial age, they generated income through agriculture.
An essential contribution of the Benedictine order was written documents on the techniques of viticulture. Also significant was the Cistercian order (founded by Saint Bernard), an ascetic offshoot of the Benedictines who believed that work, especially agricultural work, was a form of devotion, and who tried to be largely self-sufficient, making their way through their work.
It is important to remember that during the Middle Ages, the Church had much greater influence over European consciousness than it does today and the Monasteries were able to amass large and valuable land holdings through donations from wealthy people fearful of the fate of their eternal souls.
Opening of the New World brought new opportunities for viticulture in late 15th and early 16th centuries and we see the vine arrive in South America with the Spanish, the explorer Cortes is usually given the credit for introducing the grape, and Portuguese and then into North America with the English, French, and Spanish.
If nation states wanted to increase the size of their holdings, develop colonies, increase wealth and power by exploiting resources of new lands, the church went with them. Whatever the motives of the church were to expand the reach of the word, to save pagan souls, increase their own wealth and power they invariably took the vine with them because it was essential to the communion service and essential to the laity as well. The grape they brought known as the Mission grape, and there are still some plantings around.
South African plantings begin in the 17th century as the Dutch plant in the Cape at a way-station for East Indian trade routes. In the late 18th century, the English bring the vine to Australia hoping that country would become England’s vineyard as well as her prison. The most significant event of the 19th century, and perhaps history’s most important event after the initial cultivation, is the arrival of a variety of diseases in the latter part of the century in European vineyards.
It all began with mildew issues,powdery and downy mildews and culminated with the arrival of a vine louse dubbed phylloxera vastatrix, vastatrix translates as ‘ravager’ or ‘destroyer’. The louse most likely arrived in the Mediterranean basin in the 1860s at the mouth of the Rhone River which was probably the most densely concentrated area of vines on earth, Mecca for the louse. Infestation is fatal for the grape vine, because the louse feeds on the roots of the vine and in feeding, injects a poison into the roots, which is taken up by the vine’s internal system.
The louse made its way slowly east, west and north and eventually affected every part of Europe. It is hard to imagine scale of this, but one historian estimates that there may have been as many as 11 billion vines in France alone.
Eventually it was discovered that the louse was native to Eastern North America and that the native species of vines which grew there none of which are vitis vinifera, and none of which make very good quality wine had developed near immunity to the louse. European vines could be grafted onto these American roots and their character would not be fundamentally altered.
But the effect of phylloxera was lasting and in some ways beneficial because in the wake of phylloxera, there was widespread fraud, especially in traditional wine producing countries which experienced a shortage of wine and fake products, such as wine made from imported raisins or weird mixtures of beet juice and sugar were sold with labels suggesting they came from famous growing areas, such as Bordeaux or Burgundy. This led to government action to prevent fraud, and protect the famous names of origin, regulations and processes to guarantee the authenticity and, in some cases, the quality or potential quality of wines from specific places.
Government regulation has its beginnings in France in the 1930s with the creation of the appellation of origin laws: the establishment of the AOC (appellation d’origine controlée—ie. controlled name of origin) would influence the European Union’s approach to agricultural regulation and would echo throughout the world.
Today many products have their authenticity defended by such laws wine, for sure, but also products like cheese, beer, and even certain breeds of livestock which must be raised in particular ways and in particular places.
On a positive/negative note, it changed the constitution of the European vineyard as growers planted varieties with different characteristics mostly high yield (quantities) and good disease resistance and this led to the loss of certain characterful varieties which were difficult to grow.
Estimates vary, but there may be as many as 15 000 different varieties of vitis vinifera, but the wine world is dominated by only a small handful of varieties.

Tasting Theory Mystique

Sometimes people are filled with fear over the prospect of tasting wine or more about the prospect of communicating what it is they are tasting. The way over that fear is to begin to understand that there are techniques of tasting, and that tasting is a craft that is learned, not some in-born trait that some people have and some people don’t. The entire thrust of the ISG’s (International Sommelier Guild) approach to tasting can be summed up in one word: DISCIPLINE.
Tasting technique is developed through practice in two areas.
1. actually putting wine in front of your eyes, under your nose, and in your mouth.
2. and then developing a vocabulary to describe what you see, what you smell, and what you taste.
At the beginning, this may well detract from your enjoyment of wine because it breaks down into seemingly disunified bits and pieces what is ideally a harmonious and complete experience which is usually simply liked or disliked very few of us like to explain why we like something or don’t like something. But looking at things closely from different angles allows us to ask more questions and ultimately may well provide us with expanded horizons or allow us to choose to expand our horizons and take us away from being relatively simple consumers to being intelligent, informed consumers.

The Tasting Sheet

Appearance Clarity

Relatively simple and straight forward is the wine clear? or is it hazy? or cloudy? Wines will typically either be Transparent (you can see through it) or Opaque (you can’t see through it).
Intensity

We also ask how intense the colour is, is it bright or is it dull; is it pale or is it deep

Colour

Seems relatively simple, but people are generally less familiar with colours than they like to admit reds are red and whites are yellow; but we will learn some differences as the course goes on; initially ask yourself about the quality of the colour; is the wine transparent, or is it opaque.

Nose Condition

This asks whether the wine is healthy or faulty. As you encounter more faulty wines, and recognize their characteristic smells, you will develop confidence making this assessment.

Intensity

This simply asks how strong the aromas are. They will be described as High, Moderate, or Low.

Flavour Character

This simply asks what it is that you smell. Usually just 2-4 descriptors are useful though some people use too many and end up being ineffective -being too broad. When we smell a wine, we vacuum up volatile aromatic chemicals which are dissolved in a mucous membrane and interpreted by our brains specifically in the olfactory bulb. Smelling through our nose is sometimes called direct olfaction. Below is a list, not an exhaustive one, of common wine aromas. Please notice that the aromas are arranged in categories a la Russian dolls. Always, when tasting, begin with the most general category before getting more specific.

Fruity Smells:
There is a wide range of fruity smells associated with wine, and many of them we will encounter at some point during the course. For simplicity, we can break down the fruity smells of wine into a set of categories.
Citrus Aromas:
lemon, lime, grapefruit, orange.
Berry Aromas:
These can be broken down into red berries like strawberry, raspberry and red currants and black berries like blackberry and black currants
Tropical Fruit Aromas:
Pineapple, mango, various melons, bananas, lychee.
Tree Fruit:
Cherries, plums, apricot, peach, apple.
Dried Fruit:
Confected fruits like strawberry jam, figs, prunes, raisins, sun dried tomato. Vegetable Smells:
Bell pepper, eucalyptus, grass and straw, mint, asparagus, green beans, olives, tea, tobacco.
Woody Smells:
Cedar, oak, vanilla, coffee, toast.
Caramelized Smells:
Honey, butterscotch, chocolate, molasses, soy sauce.
Earthy Smells:
Musty, muddy, tar, mushrooms of various types, forest floor and humus, manure and various other excremental smells.
Spicy, Herbal, and Nutty Smells:
Hazelnut, almond, coconut, licorice, black pepper, brown spices such as cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice and cloves.
Floral Smells:
Rose petals, violets, fruit blossoms such as peach and orange.
Dairy/Bakery Smells:
Yeast, bread dough, butter, cheese.
Chemical Smells:
Wet cardboard, sulphur, hydrogen sulphide (rotten egg), rubber.
Wine Flaws:
Oxidation, cooked and stewed smells, mould, cork, vinegar.

Aroma vs Bouquet (ie. Development)

This relatively old distinction can cause a great deal of consternation, but there are easily understood distinctions to be made easy intellectually, but perhaps more difficult practically. As wine matures, it begins to take on different smells the same wine at 2 years of age and at 12 years of age will smell different. The distinction between aroma and bouquet is designed to address this simple fact. What is most useful to remember is that aroma is the smell a wine most typically offers in youth, whereas bouquet is the smell of a mature wine; it is, in other words, a smell associated with the development of the wine over time some tasting sheets will use the word development instead of aroma/bouquet.
Aroma is most importantly linked with the aromatic signatures of the grape variety its the specific characteristics. Throughout this course, we will look at the major aromas associated with individual grape varieties and they will become your anchors for identifying wines in blind tasting situations. Aromas, then, are fruit smells and other common smells associated with a variety.
Later in our education we will come to call these smells primary aromas. The smells associated with bouquet tend toward the earthy, even the subterranean, and are ultimately more complex and elusive than the primary aromas mushrooms, truffles, forest floor, nuts.
In bouquet, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Aroma reaches out for things above the ground it is air, pure Eros.
Bouquet reaches beneath it is earth, sex and death, the smell of the Fall.
Later in our education, we will come to call bouquet by the name tertiary aromas.

Taste (Palate)

Sweetness:
Some wines are sweeter than others, and we will begin to understand sugar levels in wine. The standard degrees of sweetness are as follows:
Dry—Off Dry—Medium Dry—Medium—Medium Sweet—Sweet Acidity: All wine is acidic; what we are interested in doing is developing a sense of the degree of acidity in the wine from low to high. We will develop this by experiencing wines side-by-side with different levels of acidity.
Tannin:
A natural constituent of the skins of grapes and also of wood barrels, all wine contains some tannin, though it is in red wine that we experience it most; it produces a drying sensation on the teeth and gums. What we are interested in is examining the level of tannin in the wine from low to high.
Flavour Character:
Here we are interested in testing and confirming what we experienced when we first smelled the wine. The mouth warms the wine and the aromas travel up into the nasal cavity through the back route. This is sometimes called Retro-olfaction and we have access to this when we breathe out after spitting or swallowing wine. Also ask yourself how intense those flavours are.
Body/Alcohol:
All wine contains alcohol in the range of 5-17% for unfortified wines, higher for fortified wines. Alcohol provides the body of the wine. When we speak of body with respect to wine, we are asking ourselves how thick or thin, full or light the wine is. A good parallel is provided by milk: think of skim milk as light-bodied, whole milk as medium-bodied, and cream as full-bodied
Length:
Here we are interested in the finish of the wine and will ask ourselves how long the flavours last, what we call length or persistence.

Summary Issues

Balance:
This is perhaps the most important issue. Quality wines are marked by a balance of the constituent elements of acid, sweetness, tannin, alcohol, flavour and length. No single element should dominate the profile of the wine.
Quality:
We will begin to examine issues of quality in wines and rate them according to our perceptions from poor to excellent.
Maturity:
We will begin to understand the meaning of maturity and apply it to wines and come to understand the difference between age and maturity. We will ask ourselves whether the constituents of the wine indicate that it may benefit from further cellaring or whether it is currently drinking at its peak.

White Wine Vinification Fundamental Steps

Step 1.
Crushing of White or Black Grapes 
Variables: If black grapes employed, skins and juice must be separated. If coloration of juice is not desired, most commonly white grapes are destemmed at the time of crushing.
Step 2.
Separation of Free-Run Juice 
Variables: This is usually considered the finest quality juice, kept separate from press-wine.
Step 3.
Pressing of Solids 
Variables: Choice of press, use of press wines?
NB: PRESSING OF WHITE WINE IS PRE-FERMENTATION!!!!!
Step 4.
Settling and Clarification of Juice pre-fermentation (clear juice ferments better than very cloudy juice)
Step 5.
Alcoholic Fermentation 
Variables: Yeast culture choice or use of wild yeasts, duration and temperature of fermentation (generally cooler fermentation temperature than for red wine). Choice of fermentation vessel, size and material (i.e., stainless steel, concrete, wooden barrels).
Step 6.
Malolactic Fermentation 
Variables: Malolactic can be included or prevented. Significantly impacts on impression of acidity and flavor enhancement.
Step 7.
Ageing 
Variables: Duration of ageing period, choice of vessel, inert or porous, type of wood, age and qualities of wood, ageing on yeast lees or not.
Step 8.
Fining and Filtering (Clarification) 
Variables: Fining or not (Materials used?), filter or not (Materials/method used?), filter (How many times?)
Step 9.
Bottling/Packaging
Variables: Choice of container, labeling, closures


Red Wine Vinification Fundamental Steps

Step 1.
Crushing of Grapes 
Variables: Separation of grapes from stems (no or full or partial de-stemming)
Step 2.
Addition of Yeast 
Variables: Selection of yeast used, native or cultured  Chaptalization in cool climates for sugar level compensation (addition of cane or beet sugar) in certain years approved by AOC
Step 3.
Alcoholic Fermentation (Juice and skins together) 
Variables: Duration and temperature of fermentation, pumping over or punching down cap – all influence color and flavor extraction from skins. Choice of fermentation vessel, size and material (i.e., stainless steel, concrete, wooden vats)  Carbonic maceration for Gamay grape in Beaujolais – whole berry fermentation in closed vessel increases fruit profile = bubblegum/candy like
Step 4.
Separation of juice and Solids Post-Fermentation
Step 5. Pressing of Solids 
Variables: Choice of style of press, press wine kept separate, may be used or not to some degree in final blend
NB: PRESSING OF RED WINE IS POST-FERMENTATION!!!!!
Step 6. Malolactic Fermentation – Almost Universal in Red Wine Making
Step 7. Ageing Pre-bottling 
Variables: Duration of ageing, choice of vessel, inert or porous, type of wood, age and qualities of wood  Pigeage – punching down the cap – encourage extraction of color & tannins and aeration for deep red wines
Step 8. Bottling 
Variables: Choice of container, labeling, closure.
Use of Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) can be employed at ALL above stages, from freshly harvested grapes to newly bottled wine to act as an antiseptic and anti-oxidant.