Wine Fundamentals 1 Class 5

Cellaring and Storage
• many of what are generally considered to be the world’s “great” wines arrive in the
hands of consumers with a qualification: they will reach their peak of quality after a
certain number of years of cellaring
• given the high cost of some of these products, it is important to understand that when
producers or retailers advocate that a wine be cellared, they have in mind a set of
environmental conditions which must be observed for the wine to reach its peak
• the French word for the period of time a wine spends at the winery, often in barrel,
where it is tended before bottling is “elevage”, which means “raising” and is the same
word applied to the raising of a child—l’elevage de l’enfant
• when a wine which will be better after cellaring reaches a consumer, it must be
similarly “raised”, and just like a child, will respond either positively or negatively to the
conditions in which it is raised
• mercifully, raising a wine is far less complicated than raising a child and there are no
competing theories as to how best to do it, no theories on the virtues of time-outs, or the
evils of spanking, hours of television, or scheduling play-time
• instead, there is agreement on what factors make for ideal cellaring conditions and
home consumers and restaurants are advised to observe these conditions in order to
protect their investment and to ensure that the wine will be healthy when it has reached
its peak age
• if ideal cellaring conditions are not observed, the fault rests with the buyer, not the
producer
Ideal Cellaring Conditions
Temperature
• ideal temperature for wine storage is in the range of 50-55 F or 10-12 C
• most wines of quality can mature well at a broader range as well—45-64 F or 7-18 C,
but it should be emphasized that a wine’s rate of maturation is affected by temperature:
at warmer temperatures, the rate is increased
• the greater issue with respect to temperature is constancy
• both corks and wine expand and contract in response to temperature fluctuations and if
fluctuations occur—especially if the temperature change occurs quickly—there is a
danger that the cork’s seal will be lost and wine will leak up the cork and suffer oxidation
• prolonged exposure to high temperatures can cause the wine to develop cooked or
stewed flavours—a wine fault known as “madeirization”
• “madeirized” wines are so named after “Madeira” the fortified wine from the island of
Madeira which is purposely heated to develop its characteristic aroma
Darkness
• wine is a photo-sensitive liquid, and is ideally stored in the dark
• light causes pigments to change—your forest green pine tree air freshener hanging
from your rear view mirror will fade after a few weeks in the sun
• the effects of light on wine are most obvious in white wines where prolonged exposure
can cause pigments to oxidize prematurely and turn brown
Humidity
• high relative humidity in a cellar is important for maintaining the integrity of the cork
• if humidity is too low, the cork can dry out and contract causing oxidation of the wine
and leakage
• this is also why wine is best stored either on its side or at a slight angle: maintaining
contact with the wine keeps the cork moist
• excess humidity can also be a problem and cause labels and corks to rot—we know that
rot in the vineyard is encouraged in humid conditions and the same is true in the cellar
• ideal relative humidity is between 75 and 80 % and should not fluctuate
Freedom from Vibration
• modern wineries have invested heavily in equipment and winery designs which allow
them to handle the fruit and the finished wine in the gentlest possible ways
• one of the most popular modern winery designs is what is known as the gravity-fed or
gravity flow winery where the successive stages of the wine making process occur at
successively lower levels—reception of fruit at the top, crushing at the next, fermentation
at the next, pressing at the next, and so on
• the philosophy which guides the modern winery has its parallel in the wine cellar: wine
matures best when it is left alone, not constantly moved around or shaken up
• vibration and movement affect the chemical and physical changes which occur as a
wine matures and should be avoided as much as possible
• wines should be stored either with labels upright or with some sort of bin number
system so that the location of the wine is known without the necessity for pulling out
bottles to find the correct wine
Cleanliness
• wine can be sensitive to odours in the cellar and, ideally, the cellar should be kept free
of odours and should be well-ventilated and dedicated—only wine and spirits should be
stored together
Why Bother?
• with so many conditions attached to proper wine storage, it is not unreasonable to ask,
“Why bother?”
• the vast majority of wines are consumed within hours of purchase and most are made to
be treated in just that way: all wines age, but only a small number of wines mature into a
liquid which is noticeably different and arguably more pleasurable (or “better”) than they
were in youth
• the simple answer to “Why bother?” for the home consumer is that you enjoy the
structural and flavour-related uniqueness of mature wine: it provides a level of pleasure
which is worth jumping through a few hoops to experience
• if, after tasting mature wines which have been properly cellared, you find that you do
not appreciate their unique qualities, then there really is no reason to bother
• in the absence of love, there are a few other potential motives for cellaring wine
• there are some home consumers who purchase wines strictly as an investment with the
intention of realizing a reasonable rate of return when the wines are re-sold, and for these
people, proper cellaring is essential
• in general, however, wine is not a particularly sound financial investment, particularly
in Ontario where re-selling the wine is more difficult than in some other jurisdictions
• there are other consumers who, while not themselves appreciative of mature wine,
entertain regularly and like to provide their guests with the option of mature wine; for
these people, proper cellaring is crucial
• the issue is marginally more complicated when it arrives in the restaurant setting
• successful restaurants with thoughtful and serious wine programs will generally try to
offer guests the option of mature wine
• restaurants must balance a few issues, however, when deciding how best to provide
their guests with such options
• the first, and most important issue is financial
• providing proper storage can be expensive; cellaring wine ties up capital and there is no
guarantee that a reasonable return on that capital will be realized
• the other issue facing the restaurateur is the basic difference between cellar and service
temperatures
• in the ideal circumstances, restaurants will be able to provide two levels of storage:
proper conditions for long-term cellaring; and a second storage area which will house
wines to be sold in the near-term and held at temperatures close to the ideal for service
What Happens to Wine as it Matures?
• lovers of fine old wines may not care what exactly happens inside a bottle of
wine—they care what it tastes like like when the cork is removed and it splashes into a
clean glass
• but it pays to have a basic understanding of what happens
• in brief, there are two basic processes at work—the first is oxidation and the
second reduction
• together, they render a wine softer, less tannic, and with a different aromatic profile (a
bouquet) and different colour than is displayed in young wines
• we have already examined colour change—part of which is caused by the oxidation of
the pigments in the wine
• there is a small amount of oxygen present in a bottle of wine, but this is quite quickly
used up and a different process begins—what is typically called reductive ageing which
takes place in the absence of the exchange with oxygen
• Reds: young reds are dominated by lilac, purple, mauve and, occasionally blue-black
hues
• as wine ages, pigment molecules, which are small, begin to join with other molecules
(including the larger tannin molecules) to form larger molecules or polymers
• not surprisingly, this process is known as polymerization
• when polymers become too large to remain suspended in solution, they drop out as
sediment
• as the purple pigments diminish, they lose their dominance over the colour of the
wine and remaining tannins now begin to show their colours—yellowish, orange,
brown—and they also polymerize and drop out of solution
• nevertheless, as the colours of the tannins begin to take over, the wine emerges as
increasingly brown
• remember though that this is an assessment of maturity, not age; different wines mature
at different rates; nor is it an assessment of quality; few wines improve with age
• Whites: the changes in colour of white wines are less well understood, but current
thinking suggests that whites are white due to a combination of yellow flavones and
green chlorophyll
• colour changes may be the result of the joining of these and browning caused by
oxidation
Merlot
• enormously successful international variety and competes with Cabernet Sauvignon for
supremacy
In the Vineyard
Features
• large, deeply coloured berries with relatively thin skins in loose bunches
• relatively low in tannin and capable of high sugar levels (and hence high alcohol)
• early budding, flowering and ripening
Susceptibility
• frost is a problem, given early budding and the variety has shown itself not be survive
particularly cold winters (Washington State lost many Merlot vines in the cold winter of
1997-98)
• coulure, downy mildew
• thin skin makes gray rot a problem
Soils and Climate
• does well in cold/cool soils with good water retention such as clay, but also does well in
dry, well-drained soils
• relatively cool climate is ideal with warm days and cool nights
• in hotter climates, can suffer alarming loss of acidity
In the Winery
Vinification and Ageing
• standard red wine vinification, with great affinity for maturation in oak barrels where
the vanilla of the wood marries well with the plum and cocoa flavours of the grape
• quite wide stylistic variation for soft and quaffable to firm and ageable—even
occasionally made as a rose or “white Merlot” by enterprising vintners looking to
capitalize on its easy-to-pronounce name
• of enormous importance as a blending partner with Cabernet Sauvignon and/or
Cabernet Franc in Bordeaux and elsewhere
• can suffer from a lack of acidity
• in this familiar blend, Merlot provides alcohol, richness of fruit and greater forwardness
to the tannic/acidic structure of Cabernet Sauvignon
• on its own, Merlot is generally suitable for mid-term ageing of 4+ years, but finest
examples have 20+ year potential
• when blended with generally more ageable variety like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot will
improve over a longer period
Common Aromatic Descriptors
• Fruit: plum, prune, black cherry, fig
• Other: fruitcake, chocolate
• can be herbaceous if underripe
• Palate: it is, perhaps, the texture or mouthfeel which is most important for the
popularity of Merlot—its richness, suppleness, and softness
Noted Regions
Spiritual Home
• the right bank of Bordeaux in the area sometimes referred to as the Libournais
• specifically, the communes of St.-Emilion and Pomerol where its traditional blending
partner is Cabernet Franc
Other Regions
• the rest of Bordeaux where it is forms an important component in the standard
Bordeaux blend
• Tuscany, the Napa Valley, and Washington State all produce Merlot or Merlot-based
wines of great quality
• Ticino in Switzerland, British Columbia in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, South
Africa, Chile
• just about everywhere else on earth: the vine is fashionable and capable of providing
good financial returns to growers
Cabernet Franc
In the Vineyard
Features
• large berries in fairly loose bunches
• buds and ripens early, making it suitable for cooler climates
• a relative of Cabernet Sauvignon—part of a family of vines typically known as the
Carmenet varieties
Susceptibility
• quite hardy and disease and cold resistant, but has problems with downy and powdery
mildew
• prone to mutation, but not at all as susceptible to this as Pinot Noir
Soils and Climate
• does well in cool climates and cooler clay soils with good water retention
• generally adaptable to different soils—also does well in the dry, well-drained soils of
the Medoc
In the Winery
Vinification and Ageing
• standard red wine vinification, but a little less amenable to the rich flavours associated
with maturation in new oak barrels
• occasionally fermented at cooler temperatures and aged in inert vessels to highlight fruit
flavours
• occasionally and successfully vinified as a rose, especially in France’s Loire Valley
• Ontario producers have made very successful ice wine from Cab Franc
• not often seen as a vin de garde (a wine to put away for ageing) but can mature nicely
over the mid-term (4-6 years)
• longer ageing for blended wines
• occasionally seen as a varietal wine, but very often blended with Merlot and/or
Cabernet Sauvignon where Cab Franc provides intriguing and lifted aromas
Common Aromatic Descriptors
• Fruit: raspberry, strawberry
• Earthy: pencil shavings, graphite, wet stones, smoke, ashtray (in Ontario)
• Floral/Vegetal: Green pepper, violets, occasionally herbaceous, leafy aromas
• Palate: similar to Cab Sauv but less tannic and leaner of flavour
Noted Regions
Spiritual Home
• the central west coast of France in the Bordeaux region and the Loire Valley
• in Bordeaux, it is most important as a blending partner with Cabernet Sauvignon and/or
Merlot
• in the Loire Valley, it is the variety used in appellations of Chinon, Bourgeuil, and St.-
Nicolas de Bourgeuil
Other Regions
• Ontario, where it is important as a varietal wine as well as a blending partner
• everywhere that Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are grown
• New Zealand has produced interesting varietal Cab Franc
Gamay
In the Vineyard
Features
• medium-sized purple berries
• high acidity and low tannin
Susceptibility
• greatest problem is gray rot in wet or humid conditions
Yield
• high—notoriously so
• in the 14th Century, Philip the Bold, the first of the Valois Dukes of Burgundy, ordered
that the grape be uprooted from the Cote d’Or, describing it as “mechante et desloyale”
(evil and disloyal) because of the dismal quality of wine produced from its high yields
• in Beaujolais, pruning to the gobelet style (a small, free-standing bush) is used to
restrain the yields
Soils and Climate
• best expression has been on granitic soils with sand and clay at high altitudes
• but the vine is adaptable to other soils such as limestone soils
• best in cool climates
In the Winery
Vinification and Ageing
• can be made using traditional red wine vinification
• most famous expression is from a modified form of carbonic maceration, a rapid, whole
bunch fermentation conducted under a veil of CO2 designed to emphasize fruitiness of
the variety while de-emphasizing tannin and naturally high acidity
• early release and early consumption is most common though some of the finest
examples can improve with short-term ageing of usually not more than 2 or 3 years
• Nouveau style released very soon after completing vinification—third Thursday in
November of the vintage year
Common Aromatic Descriptors
• Fruit: red fruits of strawberry, raspberry, and cherry; banana—an aroma most
associated with the vinification technique common to the variety
• Other: occasionally black pepper notes
• Palate: typically soft tannins, med-high acidity and a medium-deep purple color
Noted Regions
Spiritual Home
• France’s Burgundy region
• more specifically, the southern, mountainous region of Beaujolais
• top quality generally comes from the wines from 10 villages of the regions which are
known as crus (growths)—familiar crus include Morgon, Moulin-a-Vent, and St.-Amour
Other Regions
• no other region has been as successful with Gamay as Beaujolais has, but it is grown in
the Loire Valley and has produced good wines in Ontario and Switzerland
Zinfandel
In the Vineyard
Features
• large bunches capable of reaching almost ridiculously high sugar levels (up to 17%+
potential alcohol)
• variety ripens early, but unevenly; same bunch may carry unripe, ripe, and raisined
berries
• uncertain origins of the vine inspired an interesting detective search—DNA testing has
now proven that the vine is descended from a vine native to Croatia
Susceptibility
• humid conditions can lead to bunch rot
• that famous ripeness can be a problem and, if not carefully observed,
shriveling/raisining can be detrimental to wine quality
Yield
• generally high, but some of the best examples come from very low-yielding old vines
Soils and Climate
• quite adaptable to different soils
• climate is a bigger issue—prefers a long warm growing season—Mediterranean style
• in hot years, raisining and absurdly high sugar levels can occur
In the Winery
Vinification and Ageing
• produced in a wide variety of styles from red table wine to “blush” styles, sparkling,
and port-style dessert wines
• red wine vinification is fairly standard, though historically, it was not a variety
sufficiently valued to justify the expense of new oak barrels
• that has, of course, changed
• good for mid-term ageing with finest examples lasting and improving for 10-12 years
Common Aromatic Descriptors
• Fruit: very berry, mixed berry compote, brambleberry, blackberry, raspberry
• Dried Fruit: dates, prunes, raisins
• Other: black pepper, black tea, herbs, chocolate
• Palate: low acidity, low-med tannins, high alcohol
Noted Regions
Spiritual Home
• even if the vine is of Croation origin, its real home has become California where it is
widely grown
• most important in California is Sonoma County, but also Amador County—both of
which hold old vineyards; some in Napa, too
Other Regions
• Southern Italian region of Puglia (the spiked heel of the Italian boot) where a
genetically identical vine called Primitivo has been discovered
• wines of quality are emerging from Puglia, but they haven’t they caught up to
California—can be good value nonetheless

Wine Fundamentals 1 Class 4

Service

Proper service of wine is important in the hospitality setting for various reasons, and the
philosophies and techniques developed in that environment can also be applied to the
more casual home environment. What follows is an outline of the sommelier’s role in the service of wine. In the actual restaurant situation, the sommelier’s job description is likely to be
considerably broader than the relatively simple service of wine, but service is, from the
perspective of the guest, of primary significance. It remains a truism of the hospitality industry that guests are much more inclined to forgive bad food than they are bad or indifferent or arrogant service. Most of what we call “bad” service flows out of attitude, but poor technique is also an issue.

Client Expectations

Restaurant customers arrive with a set of expectations and it is up to the sommelier to
manage those expectations. As I’ve indicated above, the primary expectation is that they will be treated hospitably and in this it is worth remembering that the word “hospitality” is derived from the Greek hospes, which means “host” or, more broadly, “to care”. In other, similar derivatives of the original Greek, we get words such as hospice and
hospital where the meaning “to care” is closer to the surface. The good restaurant employee never forgets that the first requirement is to care for the guest and no amount of knowledge or technical prowess can compensate for a lack of care. That said, technical skill in the service of wine is important in the restaurant industry and is all too often overlooked.

Handling the Bottle

The basic principle in handling a bottle of wine is simply stated: all wines, no matter
their price or provenance, should be handled as though they are fine, old bottles. This means that they should be handled gently with a minimum of agitation which, in a
fine old bottle, would disturb sediment and make separation of the wine from sediment
difficult. Young wines which will not be decanted should be presented to the host from the right,
the label upright; the server will repeat the name of the wine and the vintage to ensure
that the correct wine has be brought to the table. Then the wine will be placed upright on the table, ideally on some form of coaster before opening.

The Corkscrew

There are various styles of corkscrews available, some specifically designed for home
use and some designed with mobility in mind. The most familiar corkscrew generally used in the restaurant environment in commonly known as the “waiter’s corkscrew” and consists of a small blade used to cut the foil capsule, a worm or screw, and a bolster or bracing device to rest against the lip of the bottle to aid in the leverage used to extract the cork.

Extracting

The gentle handling of the bottle should continue when the cork is extracted; the bottle
should not be wrestled with in the air, put between the knees or under the arm, twisted,
turned, bent or beaten. It should remain upright on the table. The foil covering of the cork, or “capsule” should be cut below the lip to ensure that the wine does not come into contact with the capsule when the wine is poured. Throughout the 19th century and continuing until roughly the end of the first world war, the capsule was typically lead-based and contact with the wine could cause taint this is, of course, no longer the case, but cutting below the lip is a gesture toward the
past and maintains the principle that all wine be treated with the same respect given to fine old bottles. After the capsule is cut, it should be inspected for signs of mold or leakage and placed
on a side plate. The top of the bottle should also be inspected and wiped with a clean cloth.
The worm of the corkscrew should be inserted at a slight angle and then screwed down
to an appropriate depth; the lever should be set against the bottle lip and the cork slowly
extracted until it is almost clear of the bottle. At this point the corkscrew should be straightened and the cork eased out the last few millimeters using thumb and forefinger. The cork should then be twisted off the worm, taking care that the end which had been in contact with the wine (known as the “mirror”) is not touched. The cork should be placed on a side plate with the capsule and presented to the host for his or her inspection should s/he desire to examine them; these should be removed after the wine is poured. The lip of the bottle should again be wiped with a clean cloth before the wine is poured.
Opening a bottle of white wine obeys the same principles of gentleness, capsule-cutting, and cork-extraction; however, the wine should be brought to the table in a bucket. The wine may be opened in the bucket, but the current dominant approach is to open the bottle following the same procedures as for red wine. Depending on the desires of the guest regarding service temperature, the wine may be returned to the bucket or left on the table.

Sparkling Wine Service

The basic principles involved in opening a bottle of still wine are observed when
opening a bottle of sparkling wine, but there are differences, most of which are dictated
soley for the issue of safety. Sparkling wine is bottled under considerable pressure—5 to 6 atmospheres—and can be dangerous if mishandled. For this reason, it is opened in an ice bucket with the cork pointing away from guests, the server making sure that at all times s/he maintains pressure on the top of the cork to guarantee that it doesn’t shoot out of the bottle like a bullet.
The capsule is removed, the cage untwisted and carefully removed, with pressure
maintained by alternating thumbs. The cork should be covered with a cloth and gently twisted out of the bottle without popping.

Decanting

There are three reasons to decant a bottle wine: the first and most important is to
separate the clear wine from the sediment in wines which have thrown a deposit; young
wines are also often decanted to aerate the wine and volatilize their aromatic components
or “open them up”; third, decanting wine is a form of entertainment and showmanship. Young wines to be decanted for the purpose of aeration may be poured quite aggressively into a decanter. Older wines, however, should be poured carefully, ideally from a pouring basket into
which the wine bottle has been placed upon removal from the cellar. Wines which have been properly stored on their sides with the labels up will have sediment adhering to one side of the bottle. By placing the wine into a basket immediately, this sediment should not be disturbed.
The whole capsule should be removed, the bottle cleaned, and the cork extracted. With a light source beneath the bottle, the wine should be slowly poured into a clean decanter, with pouring stopped as the sediment reaches the shoulder of the bottle. There should not be much more than an ounce left in the bottle if the wine has been properly decanted—the amount remaining is sometimes known as the “waiter’s share”.

Temperature

The goal attached to wine service temperature is simply stated: we want to create a
situation in which the wine can best express its structure and aroma. It remains a truism that this rarely happens in restaurants, with the common complaint that most restaurants serve white wines too cold and red wines too warm. Lack of knowledge is perhaps not the most common reason for this—it is expensive and space-consuming to have multiple storage locations at different temperatures for different wine styles.

Reds
To formulate a general rule of thumb for service temperatures, we typically consider the
weight and maturity of the wine: typically, heavier wines are served at warmer temperatures, lighter wines at cooler temperatures. This is so largely because of tannin which is emphasized at cooler temperatures. Ideal service temperatures for full-bodied, tannic red wines are between 16—18 C. For medium bodied red wines, a good temperature range is 13-16 C especially light-bodied reds can be served as low as 8-12 C.

Whites

The same basic rule applies to white wine service with one essential difference cropping
up where sweetness is also a factor. Acidity is emphasized at cooler temperatures and in sweet wines where balancing acidity needs to be emphasized, cooler temperatures are recommended even for weighty wines. For full-bodied whites, such as top quality Chardonnay, temperatures as low as 10 and as high as 14 C are recommended, for medium bodied whites 8-10 C, for sweet whites with lowish acidity and light whites, temperatures between 4-8 C are fine.

Gewurztraminer

In the Vineyard

Features

-pink-red-blue skinned variety (depending on growing conditions) with intense, instantly
recognizable aromas and usually deep colour (a peachy hue, on occasion)
-often a love-it or hate-it grape variety
-usually low and unreliable yields, but some regions manage mid-level yields
-ripens unevenly and often suffers drop in acidity at ripening and requires a long season in cool areas

Susceptibility

-coulure in wet, cool springs
-powdery mildew
-rot a problem in fall, but can be noble in Alsace especially

Soils and Climate

-tends to do best in relatively heavy soils such as those with moderate clay content
-in Alsace in particular, it tends to be planted in more fertile sites where other varieties
would suffer drops in quality

In the Winery

Vinification and Ageing

-pink skin often leads to whites with noticeably deep, golden colour, and skin contact an
issue; often however, the variety is pressed slowly to allow some contact to increase
aromatics
-high sugar levels equate to high alcohol levels, which in this variety are combined with
low acidity—often some bitterness on the finish
-inert vessels, cool temperatures
-only the best, most densely concentrated age; most are designed for early consumption

Common Aromatic Descriptors

-Fruit: lychee
-Spices: ginger, cinnamon
-Floral: roses and Turkish delight
-Other: hair spray, lanolin based skin creams, musk

Noted Regions

-it’s difficult to ascribe a spiritual home to this variety
-it is part of the Traminer family and likely made its way to France and Germany from
northern Italy
-the finest dry Gewurz undoubtedly comes from Alsace where sweet versions also
appear
-in Germany, the Pfalz offers good examples
-in the new world, New Zealand, Australia, Washington, Oregon, California, Chile, and
Canada all offer interesting versions


Pinot Gris

In the Vineyard

Features

-a mutation of Pinot Noir, it can look identical to the parent vine in the vineyard
-berries can vary from a brownish pink to a grayish blue to green
-can suffer drop in acidity at ripening

Susceptibility

-same issues as Pinot Noir, but generally hardy variety

Soils and Climate

-prefers deep soils in temperate climate, especially mineral rich soils

In the Winery

Vinification and Ageing

-variable approaches from cool fermentation in stainless steel to barrel fermentation at
warmer temperatures; also occasionally done in a late harvest and/or botrytis affected
dessert style (especially in Alsace, but also in New World, especially Oregon)
-tradition in Italy is to pick earlier to preserve med-high acidity, though typical
expression elsewhere is low-med acid
-the variety typically offers plenty of flavour extract and winemakers outside of Italy
tend to want to capitalize on that

Common Aromatic Descriptors

-Fruit: apple, pear, apricot
-Other: honey, nuts, musk, honeysuckle
-Palate: variable acidity, med-full body, range of sweetness levels

Noted Regions

-once interplanted with Pinot Noir in Burgundy where it softened the style of Burgundy,
PG is now most important in Alsace where it makes full-bodied dry whites and fabulous
late harvested sweet whites
-also important in Italy where, as Pinot Grigio, it makes a fairly neutral, light white
-of great and ever-increasing significance in Oregon
-also important in Germany where it is called either Rulander or Grauburgunder


Muscat

In the Vineyard

Features

-a large family of grapes which may be white, black, or pink
-best for wine production is the smaller berried Muscat a petit grains
-intense aromatics may be reined in some with dry vinification

Susceptibility

-both powdery and downy mildews
-great problems with insect infestation

Soils and Climate

-fertile, deep soils give good yields
-prefers warm climate—in cooler climates, such as Alsace, yield is very irregular

In the Winery

Vinification and Ageing

-extraordinary variation, from still and dry to sweet and sparkling to fortified
-one constant is the avoidance of wood which would compromise the forthright aromas
-often fortified: classic southern French versions are aged for considerable periods after
fortification, but generally do not improve in bottle

Common Aromatic Descriptors

-Fruit: green grapes, raisins, orange marmalade
-Floral: roses
-musk (of course)
-typically low in acidity

Noted Regions

Spiritual Home

-Greece and North Africa; Piemonte (for frizzante and spumante wines; ie lightly and
fully sparkling)

Other Regions

-Italy, Australia, Alsace, southern France


Chenin Blanc

In the Vineyard

Features

-high acid variety makes it popular for use in the brandy industry in the new world
-buds early, ripens early, but often left late on vine

Susceptibility

-frost, powdery mildew
-botrytis, which can be a good thing in sweet wine production

Soils and Climate

-adaptable, but best expression in calcium rich soils
-classic sweet wines from cool climates, but will grow in warm climates and provide
high yields

In the Winery

Vinification and Ageing

-highly dependent on vintage, especially in classic Loire regions
-in favourable years, it is often vinified as a sweet wine, often from botrytis-affected
grapes
-cool fermentation for dry whites

Common Aromatic Descriptors

-Fruit: apples, apricots
-Other: nuts, honey
-Palate: high acidity, medium alcohol, full range of sweetness levels

Noted Regions

Spiritual Home

-the central Loire valley—Anjou-Tourraine
-appellations of Savennieres, Coteaux du Layon, and Vouvray

Other Regions

-South Africa, where it is known as Steen
-Australia and California also important


Riesling

In the Vineyard

Features

-compact clusters of small berries
-generally early budding and late ripening, but this can be mitigated by vineyard features
-typically high acid levels

Susceptibility

-relatively hardy variety with good cold and frost resistance
-can be susceptible to grey rot and coulure if cold and wet at flowering

Soils and Climate

-soils should be well-drained, but the variety is quite adaptable
-greatest expressions in slate soils and sandy loam
-tends to do best in cool climates such as Germany and northern France provide

In the Winery

Vinification and Ageing

-varied approaches to vinification depending on the desired style of wine, but generally
fermentation takes place in inert vessel at cool temperatures
-high acid levels are often combined with residual sugar giving a wine of great longevity
-though the variety does not respond to new wood, maturation in old barrels (very old,
that is) can soften the complexion of the wine
-ages exceptionally well, particularly when both sugar and acid are in abundance

Common Aromatic Descriptors

-aroma is intimately linked to soil and age
-Fruit: lime and lemon peel, peach, quince, apricot
-Other: kerosene (what the British call “petrol”) is observed in mature Riesling
-in those affected by noble rot we often find aromas of honey, raisin and spice
-in icewine, lemon, peach, and baked apple notes are not uncommon

Noted Regions

Spiritual Home

-Germany, where it is now the most planted variety all over the 13 regions of that
country
-two regions most famous are the Mosel-Saar-Ruwer and the Rheingau

Other Regions

-for dry Riesling, Alsace may be the finest
-also important in Canada, Australia, and various central European countries like Austria